Grammar: the attribute

The A is a secondary part of the sentence which qualifies a noun, a pronoun, or any other part of speech that has a nominal character. It doesn't agree with the word it modifies in number, case, or gender. The A can be expressed by:

1) An adjective (A nice person);
2) A pronoun (possessive, defining, demonstrative, interrogative, relative) (Their song);
3) A numeral (cardinal or ordinal) (First place);
4) A noun in the common case (City legend) and genitive case (His friend's mother); 5) A prepositional phrase (A letter from my sister);
6) An adverb in pre-position (After shock) and post-position (The room below);
7) Participles 1&2 or a participial phrase (Painted house);
8) A prepositional phrase or a prepositional construction with a gerund (I like the idea of visiting you);
9) An infinitive, an infinitive phrase or construction (always used in post-position) (It's my chance to earn a lot); 10) Quotation groups (I don't like his know-it-all tone).

An apposition is a special kind of A which is expressed by a noun which characterizes or explains the word modified by giving the person or thing another name. The close apposition is not separated by commas and stands in close connection with the word modified.

These word-groups generally consist either of the name of a person and a noun denoting relationship, or a geographical name and some common noun (the first component is a common noun in apposition) (Uncle Tom, the city of London). The loose or detached apposition is always separated by commas and has a stress of its own (Mary, my groupmate, is a nice person).

Grammar: the object

The O is a secondary part of the sentence which completes or restricts the meaning of a verb or sometimes an adjective, a word denoting state, or a noun. It can be expressed by:

1) A noun in the common case (I'll give her a present);
2) A pronoun (personal in the objective case, possessive, defining, reflexive, demonstrative, indefinite) (I know everything), the pronoun "it" sometimes is used as a real (notional) object, but occasionally it's a formal introductory object following such verbs as "to think, to find, to consider, to make, etc." (He remembered it; He found it impossible to forget that day);
3) A substantivized adjective or participle (She helps the poor);
4) An infinitive, an infinitive phrase or construction (He ordered them to stop);
5) A gerund, a gerundial phrase or construction (They forbid shouting in the streets);
6) Any part of speech used as a quotation (He said "Wow" seeing this);
7) A prepositional phrase with a noun or a gerund (I don't mind to your going with us);
8) A syntactically indivisible group (He found a number of cars parked).
There are 3 kinds of O: the direct object, the indirect object, and the cognate object.

The DO is used after transitive verbs with which it's closely connected as it denotes a person or thing directly affected by the action of the verb, it's used without a preposition (He moved his body). A TV takes only one object expressed by a noun or pronoun without any preposition, though there are a few verbs in English ("to ask, to teach, to forgive, etc.") that can have two direct objects (She taught me Spanish).

The IO denotes a living being to whom the action of the verb is directed. Type 1 of IO expresses the addressee of the action (She gave me a book). It's used with TV which can take a DO, so it hardly ever stands alone (and comes before the DO, otherwise the prepositions "to, for" are used) (Give it to me). Type 2 of IO (or the prepositional IO) is mostly used with IV and any preposition (I am certain about it).